Soil and Water: Unravelling the Nexus of Soil Degradation, Floods, Droughts, and Water Scarcity

Abstract

Water scarcity represents a critical environmental challenge of the 21st century, driven by climate change, population growth, and unsustainable use of the resources. While often focused on climatic factors and over-extraction, this paper highlights the frequently overlooked yet fundamental link between soil degradation and the escalating global water crisis. It examines how degraded soils—characterized by erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter, and diminished biological activity—lose their vital capacity to regulate the water cycle through absorption, storage, and filtration. This impairment leads to reduced water infiltration, increased surface runoff, depleted groundwater and surface water bodies, and consequently, amplified water scarcity and heightened vulnerability to both droughts and floods. The paper synthesizes evidence of these impacts across diverse global regions, including Europe, Asia, the Americas, Africa, and Australia, illustrating the tangible consequences for water availability and ecosystem stability. It further emphasizes the transformative potential of sustainable land and soil management practices in restoring soil functionality. Ultimately, addressing soil degradation is positioned not just as an agricultural imperative, climate change mitigation, the pursuit of global environmental and food security but also as an essential component of effective water resource management.

Introduction

Water scarcity is one of the most urgent environmental challenges of the 21st century, threatening ecosystems, economies, and human well-being worldwide. Driven by climate change, population growth, and unsustainable land use, the supply of clean, reliable freshwater is rapidly declining.[1] While much of the focus around water crisis centers on climatic factors and over-extraction, a critical yet often overlooked dimension is the role of soil—both as a contributor to the problem when degraded, and as a powerful solution when restored.[2] Healthy and living soils are essential to the water cycle, as they absorb, store, and filter water—supporting the replenishment of groundwater and surface water bodies, increasing the water holding  capacity of soil  and agricultural stability. When soils are degraded, it results in reduced infiltration, increased land surface temperature, higher loss of soil moisture from accelerated evapotranspiration  and falling groundwater levels, reduced recharge of surface water bodies thus increasing the risk of drought.  During heavy rainfall, depleted soils lead to poor absorption of water into soils and therefore poor recharge of both groundwater and surface water bodies,  and a greater risk of flooding.[3] As a result, the water crisis worsens, especially in regions already facing environmental and demographic stress. Addressing the water crisis, requires not only better water management. But to augment the existing water resource quantity and to ensure sustained availability of the same needs urgent action to rejuvenate the terrestrial foundation of the water cycle - action to  to restorate health and life in soils. This paper examines the link between soil degradation and Floods, Droughts, and Water Scarcity highlighting how sustainable land and soil management practices can help restore the balance.

The Impact of Degraded Soil on the Water Cycle

Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial or urban purposes leading to deterioration of physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil.[4] Soil degradation manifests in various forms, impacting the very foundation of terrestrial life. Biologically, it involves a decline in the biodiversity within the soil. Chemically, it encompasses the depletion of essential nutrients, adverse shifts in acidity or alkalinity, and the contamination from toxic substances and pollutants. Physically, it involves the deterioration of the soil's physical structure and properties affecting texture, porosity and stability of the soil. These nexuses of degradation undermine the soil's capacity to absorb, infiltrate and hold water, support plant growth, sequester carbon and to support biodiversity. The consequences are far-reaching, contributing to food insecurity, water scarcity, loss of livelihood, confliction, migration  and climate change.[5]

Healthy and living soils function as natural sponges, absorbing, storing, and filtering water, thereby facilitating groundwater recharge, consistent base flows to surface water bodies like lakes and rivers  and thus bolstering agricultural water demand. [5] However, when soils become degraded their capacity to absorb and retain water diminishes significantly.[6] Degraded soils, often resulting from unsustainable agriculture practices, heavy machinery use,  intensive livestock grazing, and anthropogenic activities that pollute the soil endangering the soil biodiversity and depleting the soil organic matter which in turn damages the soil physical, chemical and biological structure resulting in reduced water infiltration, increased surface runoff carrying away topsoil and nutrients, which not only exacerbates water scarcity by preventing replenishment of groundwater and surface water bodies but also elevates the risks of water stagnation and flooding.[7,8]

Regional Impacts of Soil Degradation on Water Crisis

The consequences of soil degradation on water availability are being felt across the globe, manifesting in distinct ways in different regions. According to the European State of the Climate – Report 2024 jointly compiled and published by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) in April 2025, the planet experienced its hottest year ever documented, marking the first time the global average temperature surpassed 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. This occurred against the backdrop of the past decade, which now stands as the warmest ten-year period on record.[9] In 2024, the number of months experiencing record-low precipitation rose by 38% compared to the 1995–2005 average, while instances of extreme 24-hour rainfall surged by 52%. That same year, water-related disasters had a devastating global impact—claiming over 8,700 lives, displacing around 40 million people, and causing economic losses exceeding US$550 billion. Among the most destructive events were flash floods, landslides, and tropical cyclones, which accounted for the highest number of casualties and financial damage. Both intense rainfall and prolonged droughts have become increasingly severe.[9]

Europe

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that a 1.5°C rise in global temperatures could lead to 30,000 heat-related deaths annually across Europe, with southeastern regions facing the greatest and most rapidly increasing impacts. In 2024, southeastern Europe experienced below-normal rainfall and recorded its driest summer in 12 years, with average river flows during the season classified as significantly or extremely low. On the other hand, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies Europe as one of the regions facing the greatest expected rise in flood risk. In recent events, storms and flooding have claimed at least 335 lives and impacted approximately 413,000 people. Financial damages are estimated at €18.2 billion, with flooding accounting for 85% of the losses. Additionally, wildfires have affected around 42,000 individuals across the continent.[9,10] According to an analysis published by the European environment agency, Water scarcity typically affects about a third of the EU's population (34%) and land area (30%) each year. However, in 2022, these percentages rose to 34% and 40% respectively.[11] Alarmingly, 61% of soils in Europe are currently considered unhealthy, primarily due to the loss of organic carbon, biodiversity and peatland deterioration. This growing crisis is closely linked to soil degradation caused by intensive agricultural practices, including erosion, salinization, and compaction.[12] 

According to the UK Government's "Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management Report" for the period from 1 April 2023 to 31 March 2024, England experienced its wettest 18-month period since records began in 1836, with nearly 1,700 mm of rain falling between October 2022 and March 2024.[13] In 2023, Portugal faced severe drought conditions, with reservoir levels dropping to 25% capacity in some regions.[14] France experienced a 30% reduction in groundwater levels in 2023 due to prolonged droughts.[15] As of November 2023, 34% of the Czech Republic's territory was under threat of drought, with groundwater levels dropping by 127% over the past decade.[16] Germany faced its driest year in decades in 2023, with soil moisture levels at a historic low.[17] In 2023, Italy's water availability decreased by 16% compared to the average of the last 30 years. Southern regions, particularly Sicily, experienced severe droughts, leading to significant agricultural losses and water rationing.[18] Spain emerged from a prolonged drought in early 2024, only to face devastating floods due to intense rainfall. According to Spain's national weather agency, AEMET, the country recorded its highest rainfall since 1893, highlighting the increasing volatility of its hydrological cycle.[19] ​According to the National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (NIMH), 2024 was Bulgaria's warmest year since 1930, with an average temperature approximately 2.1°C above climate norms.[20] In 2024, thousands across six Romanian counties faced water rationing due to prolonged drought and low rainfall.[21] In a report by WRI, Cyprus ranks as the second among the 25 water-stressed countries, using over 80% of its available water supply annually.[22]

Asia

Asia is experiencing a severe water crisis, with approximately 80% of its population living under water stress.[23] In Central Asia, over 20% of the land is degraded, affecting a substantial 30% of the population.[24] South Asia bears a significant economic burden, with an estimated annual loss of US$10 billion due to soil erosion.[25] Iran is among the most water-stressed countries globally, utilizing nearly all available water resources annually. From 2002 to 2017, the nationwide groundwater recharge declined by around −3.8 mm/yr. Reduced soil permeability due to Compaction has led to decreased groundwater levels and increased risk of water-related conflicts.[26] China’s northern plains are facing both groundwater depletion and increasing flood risk due to soil compaction and agricultural stress.The North china plain experiences an average groundwater decline rate of approximately 1.18 meters per year. The first aquifer is already depleted, and the second is nearing exhaustion due to excessive water pumping for agriculture.[27] Bangladesh faced Frequent floods in 2023 displaced over 1 million people; degraded and compacted soils in floodplains amplified runoff and reduced infiltration capacity.[28] The World Economic Forum's Global Risks Report 2025 identifies water supply shortages as top environmental risk for India and the world over the next two years (2025-2027). It specifically notes that India, along with Mexico, Morocco, Tunisia, and Uzbekistan, ranks number one in water supply crisis.[29]  According to the drought report by IMD 125 districts across India faced acute dryness in 2023, a significant increase from 33 districts in 2022. Soil degradation, including salinization and erosion, has intensified water scarcity and reduced agricultural yields.[30]

North and South America

North America, is witnessing increasing aridification and water stress, particularly in the American West, where major reservoirs have reached alarmingly low levels.[31] About 27 million people reside in areas where available surface water is limited relative to water use, according to the USGS's 2025 National Integrated Water Availability Assessment (2010-2020).[32] The latest data from the U.S. Drought Monitor, released on April, 2025, revealed a continued intensification of drought in the Southwest, marking the 14th straight week of worsening conditions in the region. Exceptional Drought emerged on the border of Arizona and New Mexico, while the most severe category of drought also spread within Texas. Additionally, Extreme Drought was newly introduced in Florida.[33] The recent U.S. Drought Monitor report from March 2025 states that  43% of the Midwest is in Moderate to Severe Drought, with another 25% being abnormally Dry. Drought is expected to be persistent in Minnesota, Iowa, northern Wisconsin, and western Missouri. Low winter precipitation, diminished streamflows, and poor subsoil moisture in these states are raising concerns for moisture availability in the spring and upcoming growing season.[34] The Dust Bowl of the 1930s serves as a stark historical reminder of the devastating consequences of soil mismanagement, including widespread agricultural collapse and forced migration.[35] Over 70% of Mexico's population faces water scarcity, particularly in the northern regions. Over 70% of Mexico's freshwater comes from groundwater, which is being depleted at an unsustainable rate and the City’s water supply is only about 60% of the city's needs.[36] 

In 2024, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that approximately 75% of soils in Latin America and the Caribbean are facing degradation issues. This widespread soil degradation poses significant threats to food security and could result in economic losses estimated at USD 60 billion annually.[37] Between 2023 and 2024, Brazil experienced widespread drought, impacting approximately 59% of the country. The crisis led to acute water shortages, significant crop failures, and widespread loss of livelihoods, particularly in vulnerable rural communities. According to the Integrated Disaster Information System, at least 2,850 Indigenous families were directly affected, with many becoming isolated as shrinking rivers severed access to essential services such as healthcare, nutrition, clean water, education, and protection. The situation was further exacerbated by increasingly intense wildfires—many of which are linked to agricultural practices and cattle grazing. These fires, which occur annually, have surged dramatically since mid-2024 as the prolonged drought created ideal conditions for their rapid spread.[38] According to the Chilean Ministry of Public Works (Ministerio de Obras Públicas), the country's water availability has decreased by 10% to 37% over the past 30 years. Looking ahead, projections suggest that water availability in northern and central Chile could decline by an additional 50% by 2060.[39]

Africa and Australia

In Africa, land is largely vulnerable to soil degradation and low water availability, particularly in its arid and semi-arid regions, which limits agricultural productivity.[40] South Africa faced its worst drought in decades in 2023, with dam levels dropping below 50% in several provinces. Soil erosion and degradation have reduced the land's ability to absorb and retain water, leading to increased flood risks during heavy rains.[41] The Sahel region experienced a 25% decrease in rainfall over the past decade. Soil degradation has led to desertification, reducing agricultural productivity and increasing vulnerability to both droughts and floods. [42] In 2023, 5.4 million people in Kenya were food insecure, largely due to the compounding effects of prolonged drought, degraded soils, and erratic rainfall patterns. [43]  More than 10 million Ethiopians faced acute water shortages in 2023, exacerbated by both land degradation and climate-induced droughts affecting soil water retention capacity. [44] According to the Bureau of Meteorology's Drought Statement (2025), South Australia has experienced its driest period since February 2024, with some regions receiving only about 20% of their usual rainfall. This has led to dried-up waterways and mass fish deaths, severely impacting ecosystems across the state.[45] The 2024 report "Going Under" by Climate Valuation projects that by 2030, over 588,000 Australian homes could become uninsurable due to riverine flooding risks. [46]

How Healthy and Living Soil Holds the Key

The key to mitigating water  crises through soil lies in restoring and maintaining a living and healthy soil, with organic matter playing a central role. Organic matter, composed of decomposed plant and animal residues, acts as the lifeblood of healthy and living soil, significantly enhancing its ability to absorb, infiltrate and retain water. Organic matter helps in improving  soil structure by binding soil particles together, creating stable aggregates and a network of pores. These pores act as channels for infiltration of water supporting groundwater and surface water body  recharge  and as storage spaces to hold it for longer periods, making it available to plants even during dry spells. Living organisms within the soil, such as earthworms and microbes, further contribute to this process by creating macro-pores and stabilizing micro-pores, thereby increasing the soil's overall water-holding capacity. In fact, a mere one percent increase in organic matter content in cropland can significantly boost its capacity to store water.[4] Soil organic matter plays a crucial role in improving drought resilience in two main ways: it has the capacity to retain up to 10 times its weight in water, and it serves as food for microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) that help develop soil structure. This process also supports macrofauna like earthworms, which create larger pores in the soil, allowing excess water to infiltrate through the surface and recharge the groundwater and surface water bodies rather than pooling on the surface. This reduces the risk of erosion and minimizes harm to aquatic ecosystems. In summary, soil organic matter improves soil’s water holding capacity and facilitate infiltration of water efficiently ensuring that the plants receive adequate water during dry spells by slowly releasing the stored water, effectively acting as "water in the bank" .[47] During heavy rainfall events, the enhanced infiltration capacity of healthy and living soil reduces surface runoff, minimizing the risk of downstream flooding and soil erosion.[4] Thus, healthy and living soil essentially has the capacity to manage water more effectively, absorbing excess when available and releasing it when needed, leading to greater resilience in the face of increasingly unpredictable weather patterns.[47]

Reviving Our Soils, Replenishing Our Water

Addressing the global water crisis requires a fundamental shift in how we manage our soils. Implementing sustainable soil management practices that are tailored to the specific conditions of a region across the world is crucial for mitigating global water scarcity. When adapted to local conditions and production systems, the following practices hold the key to reviving our soils and replenishing our water resources.

• Reduced or no-till farming minimizes soil disturbance, enhancing soil structure, increasing water infiltration, and reducing erosion, making it relevant for large-scale agriculture. [48]

• Cover cropping involves planting crops (usually fast-growing and low-maintenance) to cover the soil surface between periods of main crop production. Specific crops are grown primarily to protect, enrich, and restore the soil, rather than for direct harvest or sale. When a cover crop is terminated by mowing or cutting but left undisturbed on the soil surface, it functions as mulch — it both protects the soil and improves soil health as it decomposes over time. [48] 

• Crop rotation, the practice of growing different crops in a sequence, offers significant benefits for smallholder farmers. These crops are strategically grown to prevent nutrient loss, reduce soil erosion and limit surface runoff from deeper soil layers. This approach enhances soil life and health by diversifying nutrient demands and improving soil structure. It also disrupts pest and disease cycles, reducing the need for chemical pesticides. Additionally, crop rotation improves water use efficiency by optimizing root systems and reducing soil erosion.[49] 

• Agroforestry is a sustainable agricultural practice that involves integrating trees into agricultural landscapes. This system enhances soil health and life, biodiversity, and ecosystem functions by improving soil biological activity and promoting nutrient cycling. Agroforestry systems are shown to significantly contribute to soil health by supporting a diverse range of soil organisms, which aid in the decomposition of organic matter and the recycling of nutrients. Additionally, these systems help mitigate soil erosion, improve water retention, and enhance soil structure, making agroforestry an effective strategy for sustainable agriculture.[50] 

• Composting enriches the soil by adding stabilized organic matter and essential nutrients, thereby enhancing microbial activity and overall soil fertility. Mulching, which involves covering the soil surface with organic materials like leaves, straw, or wood chips, reduces evaporation, maintains soil moisture, and regulates soil temperature. Both practices contribute significantly to improved soil structure and reduced erosion, while supporting diverse soil biota.[50]  ​

• Rotational grazing, a livestock management practice involving the systematic movement of animals between pastures, offers significant benefits for soil health, water infiltration, and the prevention of overgrazing. By allowing vegetation in previously grazed areas to recover, this method enhances root development and increases soil organic matter, leading to improved soil structure and nutrient cycling. These changes contribute to better water infiltration and retention, reducing runoff and erosion. Such practices are particularly relevant in regions with pastoral systems, where sustainable land management is crucial for agricultural productivity and environmental conservation.[51] 

Conclusion

According to the UNESCO World Water Development Report (2023), nearly half of the global urban population—up to 2.4 billion people—will face water scarcity by 2050. The escalating global water crisis is driven not only by changing rainfall patterns and increasing demand but also by the silent degradation of our soils. This breakdown of natural infrastructure is amplifying both droughts and floods worldwide. From the American Midwest to South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, degraded soils are intensifying water stress in regions already grappling with climate extremes. Addressing soil degradation is therefore not only an agricultural and climate change mitigation imperative but also an essential element of effective water resource management. Restoring soil functionality through sustainable land and soil management is key to regulating the water cycle—promoting water absorption, storage, and filtration. By improving soil health, we can reduce surface runoff, enhance groundwater and surface water body recharge, and mitigate the impacts of water scarcity, flood and drought ensuring a more resilient and secure future for both ecosystems and human communities. The World Economic Forum (2023) emphasizes that improving soil quality through sustainable land and soil management practices could help us meet climate targets. Healthy and living soils can store significant amounts of carbon dioxide, enhance biodiversity, improve agricultural productivity, and increase water infiltration and retention contributing to the mitigation of climate change, food insecurity, water scarcity, floods, and droughts—making soil restoration one of the most practical and effective solutions available.

References 

1. UN-Water (2021). Summary Progress Update 2021 – SDG 6 – Water and Sanitation for All. Retrieved from https://www.unwater.org/publications/summary-progress-update-2021-sdg-6-water-and-sanitation-all

2. FAO (2015). Status of the world’s soil resources (SWSR) – Main report. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/i5199e/i5199e.pdf

3. Lal, R. (2021). Soil degradation and its impact on water management. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8349632/

4. UNDRR. Soil Degradation. Retrieved from https://www.undrr.org/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/en0005

5. Nichols, R. (2015). A hedge against drought: Why healthy soil is “water in the bank”. Retrieved from https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2015/05/12/hedge-against-drought-why-healthy-soil-water-bank

6. FAO (2015). Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR) – Main Report. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/i5199e/I5199E.pdf

7. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). (n.d.). Soil Degradation: Erosion, Compaction, and Contamination. Retrieved from https://www.sare.org/publications/building-soils-for-better-crops/soil-degradation/

8. Lal, R (2021). The role of soils in the regulation of hazards and extreme events. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8349632/

9. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO). (2025). European State of the Climate – Report 2024 Retrieved from https://library.wmo.int/records/item/69475-european-state-of-the-climate-report-2024?language_id=13&back=&offset=

10. Global Water Monitor Consortium (2025). 2024 Summary Report. Retrieved from https://www.globalwater.online/globalwater/report/index.html

11. European Environment Agency (2025). Use of freshwater resources in Europe. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/use-of-freshwater-resources-in-europe-1

12. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung & TMG – Think Tank for Sustainability (2024). Soil Atlas 2024: Facts and figures about a vital resource. Retrieved from https://eu.boell.org/en/SoilAtlas-PDF

13. Environment Agency (2024). Flood and coastal erosion risk management report: 2023 - 2024. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/flood-and-coastal-risk-management-national-report/flood-and-coastal-erosion-risk-management-report-1-april-2023-to-31-march-2024

14. Reuters (2023, May 10). Severe drought spreads in Portugal, officials seek EU help. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/severe-drought-spreads-portugal-officials-seek-eu-help-2023-05-10/

15. BRGM (2023). Groundwater report: Changes in aquifer levels from 2022 to 2023. Retrieved from https://www.brgm.fr/en/news/article/groundwater-report-changes-aquifer-levels-2022-2023

16. Czech Hydrometeorological Institute (CHMI) (2023). Groundwater levels were generally normal in the shallow circulation and much below-normal in the deeper circulation (water-important areas) in 2023. Retrieved from https://info.chmi.cz/rocniShrnuti/Rocenka_2023_en.pdf​

17. IGB Berlin (2023). Water in soil, not groundwater. Retrieved from https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/water-soil-not-groundwater

18. ISPRA (2024). Bilancio idrologico nazionale: stime BIGBANG e indicatori sulla risorsa idrica. Retrieved from https://www.isprambiente.gov.it/public_files/Rapporto_BIGBANG.pdf

19. AEMET (2025). Resumen de marzo de 2025. Retrieved from https://www.aemet.es/es/noticias/2025/04/resumen_mar25

20. National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (2025). 2024 Was Bulgaria's Warmest Year since 1930. Retrieved from https://www.bta.bg/en/news/bulgaria/810119-2024-was-bulgaria-s-warmest-year-since-1930

21. Euronews (2024). Thousands across six counties in Romania face water rationing crisis. Retrieved from https://www.euronews.com/2024/07/25/thousands-across-six-counties-in-romania-face-water-rationing-crisis

22. World Resources Institute (2023). 25 Countries, Housing One-Quarter of the Population, Face Extremely High Water Stress. Retrieved from https://www.wri.org/insights/highest-water-stressed-countries

23. Vanham, D. et al. (2021) The number of people exposed to water stress in relation to how much water is reserved for the environment: a global modelling study. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00234-5

24. UNCCD (2023). The Nexus Between Climate Change, Land Degradation, and Migration in Central Asia. Retrieved from https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2023-08/Study%20migration%20Central%20Asia%20full%20ENG.pdf

25. Sulaeman, D. et al. (2020). The causes and effects of soil erosion, and how to prevent it. Retrieved from https://www.wri.org/insights/causes-and-effects-soil-erosion-and-how-prevent-it

26. Noori, R. et al. (2023). Decline in Iran’s groundwater recharge. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42411-2.

27. Kumar, A. et al. (2024). Groundwater Depletion and Degradation in the North China Plain: Challenges and Mitigation Options. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020354.

28. Bangladesh UN Resident Coordinator's Office (2023). Chattogram Division Flash Floods and Monsoon Rain HCTT Humanitarian Response Plan 2023 (August 2023–January 2024). Retrieved from https://bangladesh.un.org/en/245417-chattogram-division-flash-floods-and-monsoon-rain-hctt-humanitarian-response-plan-2023

29. World Economic Forum (2025). Global Risks Report 2025. Retrieved from https://reports.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2025.pdf

30. India Meteorological Department. (2024). Drought Watch Bulletin – April 10, 2024. Retrieved from https://imdpune.gov.in/caui/drought_rep.pdf

31. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2024). As the climate dries, American West faces problematic future, experts warn. Retrieved from https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/climate-dries-american-west-faces-problematic-future-experts-warn

32. Stets, E.G. et al. (2025). The National Integrated Water Availability Assessment, Water Years 2010–20. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1894–A. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1894/a/pp1894A.pdf

33. U.S. Drought Monitor (2025). National Integrated Drought Information System: Drought in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.drought.gov/national#:~:text=As%20of%20April%2015%2C%202025,to%20the%20U.S.%20Drought%20Monitor

34. U.S. Drought Monitor (2025). Drought Status Update for the Midwest – March 6, 2025. National Integrated Drought Information System. Retrieved from https://www.drought.gov/drought-status-updates/drought-status-update-midwest-2025-03-06

35. Baumhardt, R.L. et al. (2015). North American Soil Degradation: Processes, Practices, and Mitigating Strategies. Sustainability, 7(3), 2936–2960. Retrieved from https://collin.agrilife.org/files/2019/03/Baumhardt-et-al-2015-N-American-Soil-Degredation-Processes-Practices-and-Mitigating-Strategies.pdf

36. National Water Commission of Mexico (CONAGUA) (2023). State of Water Resources in Mexico. Retrieved from https://www.conagua.gob.mx.

37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2024). Three-quarters of soils in Latin America and the Caribbean are at risk. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/americas/news/news-detail/suelos-en-riesgo/en

38. ACAPS (2025). Impact of Drought in the Brazilian Amazon and 2025 Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20250128_ACAPS_BRAZIL_-Impact_of_Drought_in_the_Brazilian_Amazon_and_2025_Outlook.pdf

39. Ministerio de Obras Públicas de Chile (2022). Plan de Racionamiento de Agua en Santiago. Retrieved from https://www.mop.cl

40. Diop, M. et al. (2022). Soil and water conservation in Africa: State of play and potential role in tackling soil degradation and building soil health in agricultural lands. Sustainability, 14(20), 13425. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013425

41. Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) (2023). National State of Water Report 2023. Retrieved from https://www.dws.gov.za​

42. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) (2017). Drought, Desertification, and Regreening in the Sahel. Retrieved from https://catalogue.unccd.int

43. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC). (2023). Kenya: Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis – July 2023 to January 2024. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/kenya-ipc-acute-food-insecurity-and-acute-malnutrition-analysis-july-2023-january-2024-published-1-september-2023

44. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) (2023). Ethiopia: Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis – July 2023 to January 2024. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/ethiopia-ipc-acute-food-insecurity-and-acute-malnutrition-analysis-july-2023-january-2024-published-1-september-2023

45. Bureau of Meteorology (2025). Drought Statement. Retrieved from http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#tabs=Summary

46. Climate Valuation (2024). Going Under: The Imperative to Act in Australia's High Flood Risk Suburbs. Retrieved from https://climatevaluation.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Climate-Valuation_Going-Under-Report_June_2024.pdf

47. Soil Health Institute (2021). How Does Soil Health Increase Resilience to Drought and Extreme Rainfall? Retrieved from https://soilhealthinstitute.org/news-events/how-does-soil-health-increase-resilience-to-drought-and-extreme-rainfall-2/

48. Snapp, S. S. et al. (2021). Cover Crops for Sustainable Cropping Systems: A Review. Agronomy, 12(12), 2076. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/12/12/2076.

49. Koushika, S. P. et al. (2024). Carbon Economics of Different Agricultural Practices for Farming Soil. arXiv. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.07530.

50. Visscher, A. M. et al. (2022). Agroforestry enhances biological activity, diversity, and soil-based ecosystem functions in mountain agroecosystems of Latin America: A meta-analysis. Global Change Biology. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17036

    51. Teague, W. R. et al. (2017). Grazing management that regenerates ecosystem function and grazingland livelihoods. African Journal of Range & Forage Science. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2017.1334706